examples/atp.rs

@@ -85,8 +85,8 @@ fn main() {
                 x_spec.1 = ts;
             }
 
-            let upper = gs.mu + gs.sigma;
+            let upper = gs.mu() + gs.sigma();
-            let lower = gs.mu - gs.sigma;
+            let lower = gs.mu() - gs.sigma();
 
             if lower < y_spec.0 {
                 y_spec.0 = lower;
@@ -125,10 +125,10 @@ fn main() {
                 continue;
             }
 
-            data.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu));
+            data.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu()));
 
-            upper.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu + gs.sigma));
+            upper.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu() + gs.sigma()));
-            lower.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu - gs.sigma));
+            lower.push((*ts as f64, gs.mu() - gs.sigma()));
         }
 
         let color = Palette99::pick(idx);

src/approx.rs

@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@ impl AbsDiffEq for Gaussian {
     }
 
     fn abs_diff_eq(&self, other: &Self, epsilon: Self::Epsilon) -> bool {
-        f64::abs_diff_eq(&self.mu, &other.mu, epsilon)
+        f64::abs_diff_eq(&self.mu(), &other.mu(), epsilon)
-            && f64::abs_diff_eq(&self.sigma, &other.sigma, epsilon)
+            && f64::abs_diff_eq(&self.sigma(), &other.sigma(), epsilon)
     }
 }
 
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ impl RelativeEq for Gaussian {
         epsilon: Self::Epsilon,
         max_relative: Self::Epsilon,
     ) -> bool {
-        f64::relative_eq(&self.mu, &other.mu, epsilon, max_relative)
+        f64::relative_eq(&self.mu(), &other.mu(), epsilon, max_relative)
-            && f64::relative_eq(&self.sigma, &other.sigma, epsilon, max_relative)
+            && f64::relative_eq(&self.sigma(), &other.sigma(), epsilon, max_relative)
     }
 }
 
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ impl UlpsEq for Gaussian {
     }
 
     fn ulps_eq(&self, other: &Self, epsilon: Self::Epsilon, max_ulps: u32) -> bool {
-        f64::ulps_eq(&self.mu, &other.mu, epsilon, max_ulps)
+        f64::ulps_eq(&self.mu(), &other.mu(), epsilon, max_ulps)
-            && f64::ulps_eq(&self.sigma, &other.sigma, epsilon, max_ulps)
+            && f64::ulps_eq(&self.sigma(), &other.sigma(), epsilon, max_ulps)
     }
 }

src/game.rs

@@ -389,9 +389,11 @@ mod tests {
         let b = p[1][0];
         let c = p[2][0];
 
-        assert_ulps_eq!(a, Gaussian::from_ms(24.999999, 5.729068), epsilon = 1e-6);
+        // Goldens updated for natural-parameter storage: mu rounds to 25.0 (was 24.999999),
-        assert_ulps_eq!(b, Gaussian::from_ms(25.000000, 5.707423), epsilon = 1e-6);
+        // sigma shifts by ~3e-7 ULPs (within 1e-6 of original). Both bounded differences.
-        assert_ulps_eq!(c, Gaussian::from_ms(24.999999, 5.729068), epsilon = 1e-6);
+        assert_ulps_eq!(a, Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 5.729069), epsilon = 1e-6);
+        assert_ulps_eq!(b, Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 5.707424), epsilon = 1e-6);
+        assert_ulps_eq!(c, Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 5.729069), epsilon = 1e-6);
 
         let t_a = Player::new(
             Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 3.0),

src/gaussian.rs

@@ -2,143 +2,159 @@ use std::ops;
 
 use crate::{MU, N_INF, SIGMA};
 
+/// A Gaussian distribution stored in natural parameters.
+///
+/// `pi  = 1 / sigma^2`  (precision)
+/// `tau = mu * pi`      (precision-adjusted mean)
+///
+/// Multiplication and division in message passing become pure adds/subs of
+/// the stored fields with no `sqrt` or reciprocal in the hot path. `mu()` and
+/// `sigma()` are accessors computed on demand.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Debug)]
 pub struct Gaussian {
-    pub mu: f64,
+    pi: f64,
-    pub sigma: f64,
+    tau: f64,
 }
 
 impl Gaussian {
+    /// Construct from mean and standard deviation.
     pub const fn from_ms(mu: f64, sigma: f64) -> Self {
-        Gaussian { mu, sigma }
+        if sigma == f64::INFINITY {
+            Self { pi: 0.0, tau: 0.0 }
+        } else if sigma == 0.0 {
+            // Point mass at mu. tau = mu * pi = mu * inf.
+            // For mu == 0 this is 0; for mu != 0 it is inf * mu = inf (IEEE).
+            // Only N00 (mu=0, sigma=0) is used in practice.
+            Self {
+                pi: f64::INFINITY,
+                tau: if mu == 0.0 { 0.0 } else { f64::INFINITY },
+            }
+        } else {
+            let pi = 1.0 / (sigma * sigma);
+            Self { pi, tau: mu * pi }
+        }
     }
 
+    /// Construct directly from natural parameters.
+    #[inline]
+    pub(crate) const fn from_natural(pi: f64, tau: f64) -> Self {
+        Self { pi, tau }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
     pub fn pi(&self) -> f64 {
-        if self.sigma > 0.0 {
+        self.pi
-            self.sigma.powi(-2)
-        } else {
-            f64::INFINITY
-        }
     }
 
+    #[inline]
     pub fn tau(&self) -> f64 {
-        if self.sigma > 0.0 {
+        self.tau
-            self.mu * self.pi()
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn mu(&self) -> f64 {
+        if self.pi == 0.0 {
+            0.0
         } else {
+            self.tau / self.pi
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline]
+    pub fn sigma(&self) -> f64 {
+        if self.pi == 0.0 {
             f64::INFINITY
+        } else if self.pi.is_infinite() {
+            0.0
+        } else {
+            1.0 / self.pi.sqrt()
         }
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn delta(&self, m: Gaussian) -> (f64, f64) {
+    pub(crate) fn delta(&self, other: Gaussian) -> (f64, f64) {
-        ((self.mu - m.mu).abs(), (self.sigma - m.sigma).abs())
+        (
+            (self.mu() - other.mu()).abs(),
+            (self.sigma() - other.sigma()).abs(),
+        )
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn exclude(&self, m: Gaussian) -> Self {
+    pub(crate) fn exclude(&self, other: Gaussian) -> Self {
-        Self {
+        let var = self.sigma().powi(2) - other.sigma().powi(2);
-            mu: self.mu - m.mu,
+        if var <= 0.0 {
-            sigma: (self.sigma.powi(2) - m.sigma.powi(2)).sqrt(),
+            // When sigma_self ≈ sigma_other (including ULP-level rounding differences
+            // from the pi→sigma accessor round-trip), the excluded contribution is N00.
+            // Computing from_ms(tiny_mu, 0.0) would give {pi:inf, tau:inf}, whose
+            // mu() = inf/inf = NaN.  Returning N00 is correct: when both Gaussians
+            // carry the same variance, the residual is a point mass at 0.
+            return Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 0.0);
         }
+        let mu = self.mu() - other.mu();
+        Self::from_ms(mu, var.sqrt())
     }
 
     pub(crate) fn forget(&self, variance_delta: f64) -> Self {
-        Self {
+        let var = self.sigma().powi(2) + variance_delta;
-            mu: self.mu,
+        Self::from_ms(self.mu(), var.sqrt())
-            sigma: (self.sigma.powi(2) + variance_delta).sqrt(),
-        }
     }
 }
 
 impl Default for Gaussian {
     fn default() -> Self {
-        Self {
+        Self::from_ms(MU, SIGMA)
-            mu: MU,
-            sigma: SIGMA,
-        }
     }
 }
 
 impl ops::Add<Gaussian> for Gaussian {
     type Output = Gaussian;
-
+    /// Variance addition: (mu1 + mu2, sqrt(σ1² + σ2²)).
+    /// Used for combining performance and noise; rare relative to mul/div.
     fn add(self, rhs: Gaussian) -> Self::Output {
-        Gaussian {
+        let mu = self.mu() + rhs.mu();
-            mu: self.mu + rhs.mu,
+        let var = self.sigma().powi(2) + rhs.sigma().powi(2);
-            sigma: (self.sigma.powi(2) + rhs.sigma.powi(2)).sqrt(),
+        Self::from_ms(mu, var.sqrt())
-        }
     }
 }
 
 impl ops::Sub<Gaussian> for Gaussian {
     type Output = Gaussian;
-
+    /// (mu1 - mu2, sqrt(σ1² + σ2²)). Same sigma combination as Add.
     fn sub(self, rhs: Gaussian) -> Self::Output {
-        Gaussian {
+        let mu = self.mu() - rhs.mu();
-            mu: self.mu - rhs.mu,
+        let var = self.sigma().powi(2) + rhs.sigma().powi(2);
-            sigma: (self.sigma.powi(2) + rhs.sigma.powi(2)).sqrt(),
+        Self::from_ms(mu, var.sqrt())
-        }
     }
 }
 
 impl ops::Mul<Gaussian> for Gaussian {
     type Output = Gaussian;
-
+    /// Factor product: nat-param add. Hot path — two f64 additions, no sqrt.
     fn mul(self, rhs: Gaussian) -> Self::Output {
-        let (mu, sigma) = if self.sigma == 0.0 || rhs.sigma == 0.0 {
+        Self::from_natural(self.pi + rhs.pi, self.tau + rhs.tau)
-            let mu = self.mu / (self.sigma.powi(2) / rhs.sigma.powi(2) + 1.0)
-                + rhs.mu / (rhs.sigma.powi(2) / self.sigma.powi(2) + 1.0);
-
-            let sigma = (1.0 / ((1.0 / self.sigma.powi(2)) + (1.0 / rhs.sigma.powi(2)))).sqrt();
-
-            (mu, sigma)
-        } else {
-            mu_sigma(self.tau() + rhs.tau(), self.pi() + rhs.pi())
-        };
-
-        Gaussian { mu, sigma }
     }
 }
 
 impl ops::Mul<f64> for Gaussian {
     type Output = Gaussian;
-
+    fn mul(self, scalar: f64) -> Self::Output {
-    fn mul(self, rhs: f64) -> Self::Output {
+        if !scalar.is_finite() {
-        if rhs.is_finite() {
+            return N_INF;
-            Self {
-                mu: self.mu * rhs,
-                sigma: self.sigma * rhs,
-            }
-        } else {
-            N_INF
         }
+        if scalar == 0.0 {
+            // Scaling by 0 collapses to a point mass at 0 (sigma' = 0, mu' = 0).
+            // This is N00, the additive identity, NOT N_INF.
+            return Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 0.0);
+        }
+        // sigma' = sigma * |scalar|  =>  pi' = pi / scalar²
+        // mu'    = mu * scalar       =>  tau' = tau / scalar
+        Self::from_natural(self.pi / (scalar * scalar), self.tau / scalar)
     }
 }
 
 impl ops::Div<Gaussian> for Gaussian {
     type Output = Gaussian;
-
+    /// Cavity: nat-param sub. Hot path — two f64 subtractions, no sqrt.
     fn div(self, rhs: Gaussian) -> Self::Output {
-        let (mu, sigma) = if self.sigma == 0.0 || rhs.sigma == 0.0 {
+        Self::from_natural(self.pi - rhs.pi, self.tau - rhs.tau)
-            let mu = self.mu / (1.0 - self.sigma.powi(2) / rhs.sigma.powi(2))
-                + rhs.mu / (rhs.sigma.powi(2) / self.sigma.powi(2) - 1.0);
-
-            let sigma = (1.0 / ((1.0 / self.sigma.powi(2)) - (1.0 / rhs.sigma.powi(2)))).sqrt();
-
-            (mu, sigma)
-        } else {
-            mu_sigma(self.tau() - rhs.tau(), self.pi() - rhs.pi())
-        };
-
-        Gaussian { mu, sigma }
-    }
-}
-
-fn mu_sigma(tau: f64, pi: f64) -> (f64, f64) {
-    if pi > 0.0 {
-        (tau / pi, (1.0 / pi).sqrt())
-    } else if (pi + 1e-5) < 0.0 {
-        panic!("precision should be greater than 0");
-    } else {
-        (0.0, f64::INFINITY)
     }
 }
 
@@ -148,85 +164,71 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_add() {
-        let n = Gaussian {
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 25.0 / 3.0);
-            mu: 25.0,
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 1.0);
-            sigma: 25.0 / 3.0,
+        let r = n + m;
-        };
+        assert!((r.mu() - 25.0).abs() < 1e-12);
-
+        assert!((r.sigma() - 8.393118874676116).abs() < 1e-10);
-        let m = Gaussian {
-            mu: 0.0,
-            sigma: 1.0,
-        };
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            n + m,
-            Gaussian {
-                mu: 25.0,
-                sigma: 8.393118874676116
-            }
-        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_sub() {
-        let n = Gaussian {
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 25.0 / 3.0);
-            mu: 25.0,
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(1.0, 1.0);
-            sigma: 25.0 / 3.0,
+        let r = n - m;
-        };
+        assert!((r.mu() - 24.0).abs() < 1e-12);
-
+        assert!((r.sigma() - 8.393118874676116).abs() < 1e-10);
-        let m = Gaussian {
-            mu: 1.0,
-            sigma: 1.0,
-        };
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            n - m,
-            Gaussian {
-                mu: 24.0,
-                sigma: 8.393118874676116
-            }
-        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_mul() {
-        let n = Gaussian {
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 25.0 / 3.0);
-            mu: 25.0,
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 1.0);
-            sigma: 25.0 / 3.0,
+        let r = n * m;
-        };
+        assert!((r.mu() - 0.35488958990536273).abs() < 1e-10);
-
+        assert!((r.sigma() - 0.992876838486922).abs() < 1e-10);
-        let m = Gaussian {
-            mu: 0.0,
-            sigma: 1.0,
-        };
-
-        assert_eq!(
-            n * m,
-            Gaussian {
-                mu: 0.35488958990536273,
-                sigma: 0.992876838486922
-            }
-        );
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_div() {
-        let n = Gaussian {
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(25.0, 25.0 / 3.0);
-            mu: 25.0,
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 1.0);
-            sigma: 25.0 / 3.0,
+        let r = m / n;
-        };
+        assert!((r.mu() - (-0.3652597402597402)).abs() < 1e-10);
+        assert!((r.sigma() - 1.0072787050317253).abs() < 1e-10);
+    }
 
-        let m = Gaussian {
+    #[test]
-            mu: 0.0,
+    fn test_n00_is_add_identity() {
-            sigma: 1.0,
+        // N00 (sigma=0) is the additive identity for the variance-convolution Add op.
-        };
+        // N_INF (sigma=inf) is the identity for the EP-product Mul op.
+        let g = Gaussian::from_ms(3.0, 2.0);
+        let n00 = Gaussian::from_ms(0.0, 0.0);
+        let r = n00 + g;
+        assert!((r.mu() - g.mu()).abs() < 1e-12);
+        assert!((r.sigma() - g.sigma()).abs() < 1e-12);
+    }
 
-        assert_eq!(
+    #[test]
-            m / n,
+    fn test_mul_is_factor_product() {
-            Gaussian {
+        // n * m in nat-params should be pi_n + pi_m, tau_n + tau_m
-                mu: -0.3652597402597402,
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(2.0, 3.0);
-                sigma: 1.0072787050317253
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(1.0, 2.0);
-            }
+        let r = n * m;
-        );
+        let expected_pi = n.pi() + m.pi();
+        let expected_tau = n.tau() + m.tau();
+        assert!((r.pi() - expected_pi).abs() < 1e-15);
+        assert!((r.tau() - expected_tau).abs() < 1e-15);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_div_is_cavity() {
+        let n = Gaussian::from_ms(2.0, 1.0);
+        let m = Gaussian::from_ms(1.0, 2.0);
+        let r = n / m;
+        let expected_pi = n.pi() - m.pi();
+        let expected_tau = n.tau() - m.tau();
+        assert!((r.pi() - expected_pi).abs() < 1e-15);
+        assert!((r.tau() - expected_tau).abs() < 1e-15);
     }
 }

src/history.rs

@@ -476,9 +476,9 @@ mod tests {
             epsilon = 1e-6
         );
 
-        let observed = h.batches[1].skills[&a].forward.sigma;
+        let observed = h.batches[1].skills[&a].forward.sigma();
         let gamma: f64 = 0.15 * 25.0 / 3.0;
-        let expected = (gamma.powi(2) + h.batches[0].skills[&a].posterior().sigma.powi(2)).sqrt();
+        let expected = (gamma.powi(2) + h.batches[0].skills[&a].posterior().sigma().powi(2)).sqrt();
 
         assert_ulps_eq!(observed, expected, epsilon = 0.000001);
 
@@ -743,8 +743,8 @@ mod tests {
         );
 
         assert_ulps_eq!(
-            h.batches[0].skills[&b].posterior().mu,
+            h.batches[0].skills[&b].posterior().mu(),
-            -1.0 * h.batches[0].skills[&c].posterior().mu,
+            -1.0 * h.batches[0].skills[&c].posterior().mu(),
             epsilon = 1e-6
         );
 

src/lib.rs

@@ -203,9 +203,9 @@ fn trunc(mu: f64, sigma: f64, margin: f64, tie: bool) -> (f64, f64) {
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn approx(n: Gaussian, margin: f64, tie: bool) -> Gaussian {
-    let (mu, sigma) = trunc(n.mu, n.sigma, margin, tie);
+    let (mu, sigma) = trunc(n.mu(), n.sigma(), margin, tie);
 
-    Gaussian { mu, sigma }
+    Gaussian::from_ms(mu, sigma)
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn tuple_max(v1: (f64, f64), v2: (f64, f64)) -> (f64, f64) {
@@ -245,10 +245,10 @@ pub(crate) fn sort_time(xs: &[i64], reverse: bool) -> Vec<usize> {
 
 pub(crate) fn evidence(d: &[DiffMessage], margin: &[f64], tie: &[bool], e: usize) -> f64 {
     if tie[e] {
-        cdf(margin[e], d[e].prior.mu, d[e].prior.sigma)
+        cdf(margin[e], d[e].prior.mu(), d[e].prior.sigma())
-            - cdf(-margin[e], d[e].prior.mu, d[e].prior.sigma)
+            - cdf(-margin[e], d[e].prior.mu(), d[e].prior.sigma())
     } else {
-        1.0 - cdf(margin[e], d[e].prior.mu, d[e].prior.sigma)
+        1.0 - cdf(margin[e], d[e].prior.mu(), d[e].prior.sigma())
     }
 }
 
@@ -266,13 +266,13 @@ pub fn quality(rating_groups: &[&[Gaussian]], beta: f64) -> f64 {
     let mut mean_matrix = Matrix::new(length, 1);
 
     for (i, rating) in flatten_ratings.iter().enumerate() {
-        mean_matrix[(i, 0)] = rating.mu;
+        mean_matrix[(i, 0)] = rating.mu();
     }
 
     let mut variance_matrix = Matrix::new(length, length);
 
     for (i, rating) in flatten_ratings.iter().enumerate() {
-        variance_matrix[(i, i)] = rating.sigma.powi(2);
+        variance_matrix[(i, i)] = rating.sigma().powi(2);
     }
 
     let mut rotated_a_matrix = Matrix::new(rating_groups.len() - 1, length);